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The following is a tale of triumph and tragedy, of brilliance and ignorance, and of how the passion of one man formed the foundations of our modern civilisation.
Though Antoine Lavoisier should be remembered for more than his achievements and death, it is his legacy and his sacrifice that has sealed his place in the annals history. |
“It took them only an instant to cut off this head, and one hundred years might not suffice to reproduce its like.” - Joseph-Louis Lagrange
One of the missions of IFSA is to portray the humanity of the hard sciences. And nothing is more descriptive of humanity than the drama that is history – the excitement of discovery and the tragedy of loss, the passion of love and the flames of hate, and everything in between.
We begin this particular drama on the 26th of August 1743, the day Antoine-Laurent of the noble house of Lavoisier (probably the first of his name) was born. His father was a successful Parisian lawyer, and thus has the means to give his son the best education money can buy. He began his formal schooling at 11 (home-schooling was a trend for the wealthy at the time) at the prestigious College des Quatre Nations of the University of Paris.
It was here that his passion in the sciences was founded, especially considering he was under the tutelage of astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. Lavoisier’s parents however were hoping that he became a lawyer and take over the family business, so in 1764 he reluctantly graduated with a law degree.
The Gentleman Scholar
Just as in any drama, there’s a scene where our hero defies his fate. Though he was forced into the life of a solicitor, Lavoisier pursued his secret interest – corresponding with scholars and philosophers of the time, went on expeditions, wrote papers for the Academie des Sciences, until so much so that his contributions are recognised by the Academie to warrant a membership; at the tender age of 26.
Scientific research back then aren’t as well nor easily funded as they are today, for most of the scientists at the time used their personal funds to procure equipment and materials. This was the heyday of the gentlemen scientists, amateur researchers (more often than not, wealthy commoners and aristocrats) not formally trained in whatever they’re studying, though this is easy as this is the period whereby the basic laws of physics and chemistry are formulated – low hanging fruits, in a manner of speaking.
Our hero, in a mortal folly worthy of a Greek tragedy, chose a fateful method to fund his research. Just so you’d know, at this time reliable administration of the state is still questionable, including basic operations like tax collection. Hence, the government outsourced the tax collecting effort to a private cooperative called the Ferme Générale , who paid the government an advance sum and later recoup their expenses (plus markup) by collecting taxes, more often than not in a punitive manner. Not surprisingly, the Ferme earned the anger of the French people; and by delving into such a business Lavoisier too will have his share of that anger.
Although the returns from his investment in the Ferme are more than adequate, Lavoisier’s fortunes also cane from a more traditional source: marriage. In 1771 he married Marie-Anne Paulze, the daughter of one of his (obscenely wealthy) Ferme partners. But more than that Madame Paulze also became his greatest asset in his scientific endeavors. She translated the works of foreign researchers, assisted him in setting up his lab and experiments as well as documenting his notes, thoughts and discoveries.
We begin this particular drama on the 26th of August 1743, the day Antoine-Laurent of the noble house of Lavoisier (probably the first of his name) was born. His father was a successful Parisian lawyer, and thus has the means to give his son the best education money can buy. He began his formal schooling at 11 (home-schooling was a trend for the wealthy at the time) at the prestigious College des Quatre Nations of the University of Paris.
It was here that his passion in the sciences was founded, especially considering he was under the tutelage of astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. Lavoisier’s parents however were hoping that he became a lawyer and take over the family business, so in 1764 he reluctantly graduated with a law degree.
The Gentleman Scholar
Just as in any drama, there’s a scene where our hero defies his fate. Though he was forced into the life of a solicitor, Lavoisier pursued his secret interest – corresponding with scholars and philosophers of the time, went on expeditions, wrote papers for the Academie des Sciences, until so much so that his contributions are recognised by the Academie to warrant a membership; at the tender age of 26.
Scientific research back then aren’t as well nor easily funded as they are today, for most of the scientists at the time used their personal funds to procure equipment and materials. This was the heyday of the gentlemen scientists, amateur researchers (more often than not, wealthy commoners and aristocrats) not formally trained in whatever they’re studying, though this is easy as this is the period whereby the basic laws of physics and chemistry are formulated – low hanging fruits, in a manner of speaking.
Our hero, in a mortal folly worthy of a Greek tragedy, chose a fateful method to fund his research. Just so you’d know, at this time reliable administration of the state is still questionable, including basic operations like tax collection. Hence, the government outsourced the tax collecting effort to a private cooperative called the Ferme Générale , who paid the government an advance sum and later recoup their expenses (plus markup) by collecting taxes, more often than not in a punitive manner. Not surprisingly, the Ferme earned the anger of the French people; and by delving into such a business Lavoisier too will have his share of that anger.
Although the returns from his investment in the Ferme are more than adequate, Lavoisier’s fortunes also cane from a more traditional source: marriage. In 1771 he married Marie-Anne Paulze, the daughter of one of his (obscenely wealthy) Ferme partners. But more than that Madame Paulze also became his greatest asset in his scientific endeavors. She translated the works of foreign researchers, assisted him in setting up his lab and experiments as well as documenting his notes, thoughts and discoveries.
Our hero and his wife
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His First Revolution
Together, man and wife, researcher and assistant, broke new grounds in their field, and in no small manner. His first, and arguable most significant, contribution is in the nature of combustion – the chemical nature and process of burning. At the time, the prevalent theory is that combustible materials (e.g. wood, paper) contain hypothetical elements called “phlogiston” (a Greek word meaning “to burn”), which are released into the air and leaving “de-phlogisted” residue (e.g. ash). Lavoisier of course initially accepts the theory, but questions it when one day he sets fire on some phosphorus and noticed that the remaining “de-phlogisted” material actually gained weight. By this age the alchemical idea of spontaneous materialisation of matter is universally accepted to be obsolete; so where did all this extra matter came from? This could serve as a good homework for you guys. Skip the article for a second and go to the questions below, try and solve them the old fashioned way. |
In time, his successes in this and other endeavours gained him both the reputation, authority and most importantly, influence in the technical side of chemistry. Lavoisier, much like Newton, stood on the shoulders of giants such as Henry Cavendish (in regards to hydrogen), Joseph Black (carbon dioxide), and Joseph Priestly (oxygen). Where these men have failed due to their qualitative and descriptive approaches to chemistry, Lavoisier had succeeded through the revolutionarily rigorous, quantitative and prescriptive experiments. If it were not for our hero, chemistry would still be considered a mystical art (i.e. alchemy).
This rigor can be seen from his attempts to quantify heat, the rate of oxidation, the systematic naming of compounds from the elements they are composed of. A head such as his considers the mundane details of exact measurement, from a millilitre of melted water, to the last microgram of oxidised iron. And the world is about to lose that head…
His Last Revolution
1789, the French Revolution; our hero’s days are numbered. The Ferme, his main source of funding, was supressed due to its role in robbing the French peasantry of its wealth and lives. Similarly the Academie, that temple of reason and knowledge, was shuttered for being associated with the Ancien Regime. Lavoisier, ever an Enlightenment figure, tried to be the voice of reason during those uncertain times. He tried, and ultimately failed, to reform the views of the aristocrats in an attempt to moderate the chaos. And even played the part that may as well inspired Arthur Schindler, by saving his foreign academic colleagues.
It wasn’t long before Lavoisier himself was targeted. Accused of approving punitive taxes through his associations with the Ferme and other baseless indictments from firebrand revolutionaries such as Jean Paul Marat and Maximillen Robespierre; Lavoisier was convicted of treason during the height of the Reign of Terror and was executed on 8 May 1794, in Paris. Probably the greatest blow to the world of science since the inquisition of Galileo.
This rigor can be seen from his attempts to quantify heat, the rate of oxidation, the systematic naming of compounds from the elements they are composed of. A head such as his considers the mundane details of exact measurement, from a millilitre of melted water, to the last microgram of oxidised iron. And the world is about to lose that head…
His Last Revolution
1789, the French Revolution; our hero’s days are numbered. The Ferme, his main source of funding, was supressed due to its role in robbing the French peasantry of its wealth and lives. Similarly the Academie, that temple of reason and knowledge, was shuttered for being associated with the Ancien Regime. Lavoisier, ever an Enlightenment figure, tried to be the voice of reason during those uncertain times. He tried, and ultimately failed, to reform the views of the aristocrats in an attempt to moderate the chaos. And even played the part that may as well inspired Arthur Schindler, by saving his foreign academic colleagues.
It wasn’t long before Lavoisier himself was targeted. Accused of approving punitive taxes through his associations with the Ferme and other baseless indictments from firebrand revolutionaries such as Jean Paul Marat and Maximillen Robespierre; Lavoisier was convicted of treason during the height of the Reign of Terror and was executed on 8 May 1794, in Paris. Probably the greatest blow to the world of science since the inquisition of Galileo.
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His Legacy
In many Greek tragedies, even the most tragic ones, all is not lost. The hero usually fulfilled his destiny, at his personal expense, in such a way that it warrants immortality. Prometheus sacrificed himself to bring fire to humanity, Heracles was apotheosised for his service in the twelve labours, Achilles died to bring victory to the Greeks against the Trojans. And for our hero, he will forever be remembered as the father of modern chemistry. The one who brought reason, empiricism and objectivity into what was once the realm of alchemical mystics. He taught us that all things should be approached with skepticism, proven through evidence, and debated in an open and free manner. Yes, his life may have been cut short, but his name and achievements tower above and beyond those who had ended him. |
On his way to his execution
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Ponder this
Lavoisier codified the "law of the conservation of mass", noting that in all chemical reactions "nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed". How can we be certain of this? Formulate a method to determine this with the help of your chemistry teacher.
Lavoisier had one of those once-in-a-generation minds that may have greatly changed the course of human history. If he had survived the French Revolution, what other things do you think he ought to have discovered, considering the period at the end of the 18th century and the early 19th century?
The story of Lavoisier is mostly about how ignorance and dogma had prevailed over reason and rationality. In their fervor, the French revolutionaries ignored his contributions and his future potential. Any similarities to this in our age?
Discuss
Lavoisier follows a long line of thinkers and philosophers who dared to question the ideas of their age. Similar to how Galileo was persecuted for stating the the Earth is the center of the universe, or how Darwin was ridiculed when he suggests that evolution through natural selection led to modern humans.
The duty of a scientist therefore is not only to discover new things and new principles of nature, but also to question current ideas. Are there any current ideas that should be questioned by us today? How would Lavoisier, or Galileo, or Darwin approach such ideas?
Further readings
Antoine Lavoisier, at the Chemical Heritage Foundation
"The Chemical Revolution of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier", at the American Chemical Society
Phlogiston theory, at Wikipedia, an obsolete theory that Lavoisier challenged and won.
Law of the conservation of mass, a natural law discovered and codified by Lavoisier, it applies widely in chemistry, physics and biology.
